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Turbidity sensing is very common in the control of drinking water. Furthermore, turbidity measurements are applied in the chemical (e.g., process monitoring), pharmaceutical (e.g., drug discovery), and food industries (e.g., the filtration of wine and beer). The most common measurement technique is nephelometric turbidimetry. A nephelometer is a device for measuring the amount of scattered light of suspended particles in a liquid by using a light source and a light detector orientated in 90°to each other. Commercially available nephelometers cost usually—depending on the measurable range, reliability, and precision —thousands of euros. In contrast, our new developed GRIN-lens-based nephelometer, called GRINephy, combines low costs with excellent reproducibility and precision, even at very low turbidity levels, which is achieved by its ability to rotate the sample. Thereby, many cuvette positions can be measured, which results in a more precise average value for the turbidity calculated by an algorithm, which also eliminates errors caused by scratches and contaminations on the cuvettes. With our compact and cheap Arduino-based sensor, we are able to measure in the range of 0.1–1000 NTU and confirm the ISO 7027-1:2016 for low turbidity values.
Direct observation of structural heterogeneity and tautomerization of single hypericin molecules
(2021)
Tautomerization is a fundamental chemical reaction which involves the relocation of a proton in the reactants. Studying the optical properties of tautomeric species is challenging because of ensemble averaging. Many molecules, such as porphines, porphycenes, or phenanthroperylene quinones, exhibit a reorientation of the transition dipole moment (TDM) during tautomerization, which can be directly observed in single-molecule experiments. Here, we study single hypericin molecules, which is a prominent phenanthroperylene quinone showing antiviral, antidepressive, and photodynamical properties. Observing abrupt flipping of the image pattern combined with time-dependent density functional theory calculations allows drawing conclusions about the coexistence of four tautomers and their conversion path. This approach allows the unambiguous assignment of a TDM orientation to a specific tautomer and enables the determination of the chemical structure in situ. Our approach can be applied to other molecules showing TDM reorientation during tautomerization, helping to gain a deeper understanding of this important process.
Hypericin has large potential in modern medicine and exhibits fascinating structural dynamics, such as multiple conformations and tautomerization. However, it is difficult to study individual conformers/tautomers, as they cannot be isolated due to the similarity of their chemical and physical properties. An approach to overcome this difficulty is to combine single molecule experiments with theoretical studies. Time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations reveal that tautomerization of hypericin occurs via a two-step proton transfer with an energy barrier of 1.63 eV, whereas a direct single-step pathway has a large activation energy barrier of 2.42 eV. Tautomerization in hypericin is accompanied by reorientation of the transition dipole moment, which can be directly observed by fluorescence intensity fluctuations. Quantitative tautomerization residence times can be obtained from the autocorrelation of the temporal emission behavior revealing that hypericin stays in the same tautomeric state for several seconds, which can be influenced by the embedding matrix. Furthermore, replacing hydrogen with deuterium further proves that the underlying process is based on tunneling of a proton. In addition, the tautomerization rate can be influenced by a λ/2 Fabry–Pérot microcavity, where the occupation of Raman active vibrations can alter the tunneling rate.
Here we report a simple way to enhance the resolution of a confocal scanning microscope under cryogenic conditions. Using a microscope objective (MO) with high numerical aperture (NA = 1:25) and 1-propanol as an immersion fluid with low freezing temperature we were able to reach an imaging resolution at 160 K comparable to ambient conditions. The MO and the sample were both placed inside the inner chamber of the cryostat to reduce distortions induced by temperature gradients. The image quality of our commercially available MO was further enhanced by scanning the sample (sample scanning) in contrast to beam scanning. The ease of the whole procedure marks an essential step towards the development of cryo high-resolution microscopy and correlative light and electron cryo microscopy (cryoCLEM).
Using a Fabry-Pérot-microresonator with controllable cavity lengths in the λ/2-regime, we show the controlled modification of the vibronic relaxation dynamics of a fluorescent dye molecule in the spectral and time domain. By altering the photonic mode density around the fluorophores we are able to shape the fluorescence spectrum and enhance specifically the probability of the radiative transitions from the electronic excited state to distinct vibronic excited states of the electronic ground state. Analysis and correlation of the spectral and time resolved measurements by a theoretical model and a global fitting procedure allows us to reveal quantitatively the spectrally distributed radiative and non-radiative relaxation dynamics of the respective dye molecule under ambient conditions at the ensemble level.
One-pot synthesis of micron partly hollow anisotropic dumbbell shaped silica core-shell particles
(2016)
A facile method is described to prepare micron partly hollow dumbbell silica particles in a single step. The obtained particles consist of a large dense part and a small hollow lobe. The spherical dense core as well as the hollow lobe are covered by mesoporous channels. In the case of a smaller lobe these channels are responsible for the permeability of the shell which was demonstrated by confocal imaging and spectroscopy.
We report the temperature dependence of metal-enhanced fluorescence (MEF) of individual photosystem I (PSI) complexes from Thermosynechococcus elongatus (T. elongatus) coupled to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). A strong temperature dependence of shape and intensity of the emission spectra is observed when PSI is coupled to AuNPs. For each temperature, the enhancement factor (EF) is calculated by comparing the intensity of individual AuNP-coupled PSI to the mean intensity of ‘uncoupled’ PSI. At cryogenic temperature (1.6 K) the average EF was 4.3-fold. Upon increasing the temperature to 250 K the EF increases to 84-fold. Single complexes show even higher EFs up to 441.0-fold. At increasing temperatures the different spectral pools of PSI from T. elongatus become distinguishable. These pools are affected differently by the plasmonic interactions and show different enhancements. The remarkable increase of the EFs is explained by a rate model including the temperature dependence of the fluorescence yield of PSI and the spectral overlap between absorption and emission spectra of AuNPs and PSI, respectively.
The fluorescence of monomeric photosystem II core complexes (mPSIIcc) of the cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus, originating from redissolved crystals, is investigated by using single-molecule spectroscopy (SMS) at 1.6 K. The emission spectra of individual mPSIIcc are dominated by sharp zero-phonon lines, showing the existence of different emitters compatible with the F685, F689, and F695 bands reported formerly. The intensity of F695 is reduced in single mPSIIcc as compared to single PSIIcc-dimers (dPSIIcc). Crystal structures show that one of the β-carotene (β-Car) cofactors located at the monomer–monomer interface in dPSIIcc is missing in mPSIIcc. This β-Car in dPSIIcc is in van der Waals distance to chlorophyll (Chl) 17 in the CP47 subunit. We suggest that this Chl contributes to the F695 emitter. A loss of β-Car cofactors in mPSIIcc preparations will lead to an increased lifetime of the triplet state of Chl 17, which can explain the reduced singlet emission of F695 as observed in SMS.
Gold bipyramids (AuBPs) attract significant attention due to the large enhancement of the electric field around their sharp tips and well-defined tunability of their plasmon resonances. Excitation patterns of single AuBPs are recorded using raster-scanning confocal microscopy combined with radially and azimuthally polarized laser beams. Photoluminescence spectra (PL) and excitation patterns of the same AuBPs are acquired with three different excitation wavelengths. The isotropic excitation patterns suggest that the AuBPs are mainly excited by interband transitions with 488/530 nm radiation, while excitation patterns created with a 633 nm laser exhibit a double-lobed shape that indicates a single-dipole excitation process associated with the longitudinal plasmon resonance mode. We are able to determine the three-dimensional orientation of single AuBPs nonperturbatively by comparing experimental patterns with theoretical simulations. The asymmetric patterns show that the AuBPs are lying on the substrate with an out-of-plane tilt angle of around 10–15°.